Nominal Voltage and AC and DC Standards

Nominal voltage is the standard voltage level assigned to electrical equipment or systems for identification. It helps ensure compatibility, performance, and safety across devices without indicating actual operating voltage, which may vary slightly.

What is Nominal Voltage?

Nominal voltage refers to the labelled voltage value of an electrical system or device.

✅ Represents standard system voltage, not an  exact measurement

✅ Helps match equipment compatibility and safety standards

✅ Common in power distribution, residential, and industrial systems

Nominal voltage (NV) is a vital aspect of electrical systems, serving as a reference point for designing, manufacturing, and testing equipment. Additionally, it affects the performance, efficiency, and safety of electrical systems, with voltage regulation ensuring that voltage levels (V) remain within acceptable tolerances. Understanding the differences between nominal voltage, operating voltage (OV), and rated voltage (RV) is crucial for professionals and enthusiasts to ensure the effective operation and maintenance of electrical systems. To better understand how nominal voltage fits within broader system design, see our comprehensive overview on voltage.

It is vital to understand the definition and importance of nominal voltage in electrical systems. NV refers to the standard voltage value assigned to an electrical system, typically the voltage that electrical equipment is designed to operate under normal conditions. This value is crucial because it serves as a reference point for designing, manufacturing, and testing electrical equipment to ensure satisfactory performance. Maintaining voltage stability is essential—learn how voltage drop impacts performance and how to accurately calculate it.

Determining nominal voltage for electrical systems involves considering factors such as the type of equipment being used, the overall power requirements, and the voltage standards set by industry organizations. In some cases, the NV is set by the equipment manufacturer, while in others, it depends on the power grid's Voltage levels. Standard nominal voltages have been established to streamline equipment design and manufacturing processes. Use our voltage drop calculator to determine how wiring distance and load affect nominal voltage in real applications.

The terms NV, OV, and RV often appear in discussions about electrical systems. While they may seem interchangeable, each has a distinct meaning. As previously mentioned, nominal voltage is the standard voltage value designated for an electrical system. On the other hand, OV is the actual voltage at which equipment functions during operation. Similar to nominal voltage, RV refers to the maximum voltage at which equipment can operate continuously without sustaining damage. See how voltage regulators are used to maintain nominal levels and protect sensitive equipment.

Nominal voltage has a direct impact on the performance of electrical systems. Equipment designed for specific NVs operates safely within a particular voltage range. Operating outside this range can result in equipment damage, decreased efficiency, and even electrical fires. Therefore, it is essential to maintain the voltage levels as close as possible to the NV. Our guide to what is voltage explains the differences between nominal, operating, and actual voltage in power systems.

Electrical systems worldwide adhere to common national voltage (NV) standards for alternating (AC) and direct (DC) systems. For AC systems, NV  ranges include 110V, 220V, and 380V, while DC systems typically have NVs of 12V, 24V, or 48V. These standardized voltage levels enable the compatibility and interoperability of electrical equipment across various regions and industries. Learn how wattmeters and voltmeter tools help monitor nominal and real-time voltage values in field diagnostics.

Voltage regulation plays a critical role in controlling an electrical system's output voltage to ensure it remains within the acceptable voltage tolerance. Voltage regulation can be achieved through various means, including transformers, voltage regulators, and software algorithms in modern power systems. By maintaining NV, the electrical system The voltages more efficiently and safely, ensuring the longevity of the equipment.

The voltage tolerance is the range of voltage deviation from the nominal voltage value within which equipment can still operate effectively and safely. Different electrical systems have different voltage tolerances depending on the nature of the equipment and its intended use. For instance, a residential electrical system may have a voltage tolerance of +/- 5%, while an industrial system might tolerate a deviation of +/- 10%. Maintaining the acceptable V tolerance is crucial for the satisfactory operation of electrical equipment.

Nominal Voltage (NV) vs Operating Voltage (OV)

Nominal voltage and OV are two related yet distinct concepts in electrical engineering systems. Understanding the different essentials to ensure electrical systems' safe and efficient operation.

Nominal voltage refers to the standard or reference voltage level assigned to an electrical system, circuit, or device. It is the ideal voltage at which the equipment is designed to operate under normal conditions. NV is a baseline value that allows manufacturers, engineers, and technicians to design, test, and rate electrical equipment consistently.

Conversely, OV is the actual voltage level at which a particular electrical system, circuit, or device is functioning during real-time operation. Unlike nominal voltage, OV can fluctuate due to factors such as load changes, temperature variations, and power supply issues. Although electrical equipment is designed to operate optimally within a specified voltage range around the nominal voltage, slight variations in the operating V are often unavoidable.

In essence, NV serves as the benchmark or target voltage level, while OV reflects the real-world voltage conditions experienced by the electrical equipment. To ensure the efficient and safe operation of electrical systems, it is crucial to maintain the OV as close as possible to the NV. When the operating voltage falls within the acceptable voltage tolerance range, electrical equipment can function efficiently and safely without the risk of damage or performance degradation. Discover how alternating current systems rely on standardized nominal voltages like 120V or 240V for safe and consistent operation.

Nominal Voltage (NV) vs Rated Voltage (RV)

Nominal voltage and RV are related terms in electrical engineering but have distinct meanings and implications. Understanding the difference between the two is crucial for designing, operating, and maintaining electrical systems and devices properly. Differences between high voltage, medium voltage, and low voltage categories are based on standardized nominal values used in system classification.

It refers to the standard or reference voltage level assigned to an electrical system, circuit, or device. It is the ideal voltage at which the equipment is designed to operate under normal conditions. NV serves as a baseline value that enables manufacturers, engineers, and technicians to design, test, and rate electrical equipment consistently across various industries and applications.

On the other hand, RV is the maximum voltage at which an electrical device or component can operate continuously without incurring damage or experiencing a significant reduction in performance. RV is a critical parameter to ensure electrical equipment's safe and efficient functioning. Operating an electrical device within its RV range prevents excessive stress on the device, thereby reducing the risk of failure or shortened lifespan. Understanding the concept of electrical resistance is key to managing voltage drop and maintaining nominal voltage across circuits.

Nominal voltage is the target or reference Voltage level for the design and operation of electrical systems. In contrast, RV defines the maximum allowable Voltage for the continuous operation of electrical equipment. To ensure the efficient and safe performance of electrical systems, it is essential to maintain the operating voltage within the acceptable voltage tolerance range around the nominal voltage and not exceed the RV.  The relationship between power factor and nominal voltage affects system efficiency, especially in industrial electrical networks.

Related Articles

• Electricity Fundamentals

• Electricity Questions

• Electricity History

Electricity windmill converts wind energy into electrical power via rotor blades, generator, gearbox, and inverter, supporting renewable energy, grid integration, power electronics, and efficient electricity production with modern control systems and variable-speed drives.

What Is an Electricity Windmill?

An electricity windmill converts kinetic wind energy into grid-grade electrical power via a wind turbine system.

✅ Generator, gearbox, and rotor optimize energy capture

✅ Inverter and VFD enable grid-quality AC output

✅ SCADA monitors performance, safety, and fault detection

Electricity windmill Mankind been harnessing the wind's energy for many years. From Holland to traditional farms around the world, old style windmills were used in the past for pumping water through primative irrigation systems or used to grind grain. Then, the wind turned large "sails" which were connected by a long vertical shaft that was attached to a grindnig machine or to a wheel that turned and drew water from a well. Today's wind turbine generators can utilize the clean energy of high wind speeds to turn large metal blades which in turn spins a generator that manufactures electric power. For a deeper overview of modern designs, the resource at windmills for electricity explains key configurations used by utilities today.

Electricity windmill turbines, unlike the machines of old, are mounted on very tall towers in order to capture the most wind energy available. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more above ground, wind turbines can take advantage of the faster and less turbulent wind. Turbines catch the wind's energy with their propeller-like blades. Usually, two or three blades are mounted on a shaft to form a rotor. If you're curious how these rotating blades ultimately power homes, see how turbines generate electricity through step-by-step conversion processes.

A blade acts much like an airplane wing. When the wind blows, a pocket of low-pressure air forms on the downwind side of the blade. The low-pressure air pocket then pulls the blade toward it, causing the rotor to turn. This is called lift. The force of the lift is actually much stronger than the wind's force against the front side of the blade, which is called drag. The combination of lift and drag causes the rotor to spin like a propeller, and the turning shaft spins a generator to make power. The rotating shaft must be matched to an electricity generator with appropriate gearing and controls to optimize output.

In recent years, governments have invested enormous amounts of (taxpayer) money in electricity windmill "wind farms" to generate large amounts of energy from large and small wind turbines that take advantage of high winds. These wind systems or energy systems use wind turbine power to create electricity.  Other energy sources like solar power do not produce as much electricity. The only problem with wind generated power is that when the wind stops, so does the generator and therefore the electric power production. Electric power cannot be produced and stored for consumption later. Therefore, wind power can only be counted on mostly when the wind is blowing at optimal speeds and only in locations where the prevailing winds are such that it makes economic sense to build these power plants and this may not be when and where the power is needed. Grid planners track regional electricity production profiles to determine how much wind capacity can be integrated without compromising reliability. As part of a balanced portfolio, policy makers also evaluate alternative electricity options that can complement variable wind resources.

Stand-alone electricity windmill turbines are typically used for water pumping or communications. However, homeowners, farmers, and ranchers in windy areas can also use wind turbines as a way to cut their power bills. For off-grid ranch operations, understanding the interplay between pumps and water electricity systems helps size batteries and controllers correctly.

Small electricity windmill systems also have potential as distributed energy resources. Distributed energy resources refer to a variety of small, modular power-generating technologies that can be combined to improve the operation of the electric power delivery system. In some regions, small-scale hydroelectricity can serve as a firm companion to wind in distributed portfolios.

Related Articles

• Electricity Fundamentals

• Electricity Questions

• Electricity History

Electricity cost reflects kWh rates, tariffs, demand charges, power factor penalties, and TOU peak/off-peak pricing, driven by load profiles, utility billing, transmission and distribution fees, and efficiency measures in industrial, commercial, and residential systems.

What Is Electricity Cost?

Electricity cost is the total price per kWh including energy, demand, and network charges under applicable tariffs.

✅ Includes energy (kWh), demand (kW), and fixed charges

✅ Varies by TOU tariffs, peak/off-peak, and seasons

✅ Affected by power factor, load profile, and efficiency

Electricity Cost principles involve looking at how much electricity consumption and we have to understand how it's measured.

At its core, understanding power use starts with grasping what electricity is and how it behaves in circuits.

It is determined at any moment and is measured in watts consumed. For example: if you want to determine the bill energy or bill electricity rate: For a refresher, see what a watt represents to relate device ratings to instantaneous power.

• A 100-watt light bulb uses 100 watts.
• A typical desktop computer uses 65 watts.
• A central air conditioner uses about 3500 watts.

These device ratings illustrate electric load in practical terms as each appliance contributes to total demand.

If you want to know how to rate electricity pricing, you want to know how much energy you're using. When you use 1000 watts for an hour, that's a kilowatt-hour. For example:

• Ten 100-watt light bulbs on for an hour, is 1 kWh
• Ten 100-watt light bulbs on for 1/2 an hour, is 0.5 kWh
• Ten 50-watt light bulbs on for an hour, is 0.5 kWh
• One 60-watt light bulb on for an hour, is 0.06 kWh (60/1000)
• Running a 3500-watt air conditioner for an hour is 3.5 kWh.

The average U.S. household used 10,654 kWh a year in 2001, or 888 kWh/mo. (Dept. of Energy) The U.S. as a whole used 3,883 billion kWh in 2003, or 13,868 kwH per person based on a population of 300 million. (Dept. of Energy)

Watt-hours

For smaller items we use the term watt-hours instead of kilowatt-hours. For example, we say a 60-watt light bulb uses 60 watt-hours of electricity billed, not 0.060 kWh. If you're unsure, this overview of what a watt-hour means clarifies the relationship between power and time.

Note that the "-hours" part is important. Without it we'd have no idea what period of time we were talking about.

If you ever see a reference without the amount of time specified, it's almost certainly per hour.

If your device lists amps instead of watts, then just multiply the amps times the voltage to get the watts. For example:

2.5 amps x 120 volts = 300 watts

Trivia: On a peak day in 2009, California used 50,743 megawatt-hours of electricity, or 50,743,000,000 watt-hours.

How much does electricity cost?

Electricity Cost

It depends on where you live (like Ontario), how much you use, and possibly when you use it. There are also fixed charges that you pay every month no matter how much electricity you use. For example, I pay $6/mo. for the privilege of being a customer of the electric company, no matter how much energy I use. Local infrastructure and electricity supply conditions can also influence pricing tiers.

Check your utility bill for the rates in your area. If it's not on your bill then look it up on the utility's website. National summaries of electricity prices help you compare trends across regions.

The electric company measures how much electricity you use in kilowatt-hours. The abbreviation for killowatt-hour is kWh. Note that on your bill there can be multiple charges per kWh (e.g., one for the "base rate", another for "fuel") and you have to add them all up to get the total cost per kWh. This measurement is recorded by a watt-hour meter that cumulatively tracks energy over time.

Most utility companies charge a higher rate when you use more than a certain amount of energy, and they also charge more during summer months when electric use is higher. As an example, here are the residential rates prices electricity for Austin, Texas (as of 11-03):

First 500 kilowatts5.8¢ per kilowatt hour (kWh)

Additional kilowatts (May-Oct.)10¢ per kilowatt hour

Additonal kilowatts (Nov.-Apr.)8.3¢ per kilowatt hour

These figures include a fuel charge of 2.265¢ per kWh.

The average cost of residential electricity was 9.86¢/kWh in the U.S. in March 2006. The average household used 888 kWh/mo. in 2001 and would pay $87.56 for it based on the March 2006 average rate. (Dept. of Energy)

The cost of electricity varies by region. In 2003 the price ranged from 5.81¢ in Tennessee to 12¢ in California, 14.314¢ in New York, and 16.734¢ in Hawaii. In Summer 2001, electricity was a whopping 20¢/kWh in parts of California.

Related Articles

• Electricity Fundamentals

• Electricity Questions

• Electricity History

Alternative electricity integrates renewable energy, smart grids, and distributed generation, combining solar photovoltaics, wind power, hydropower, and battery storage with power electronics and demand response to decarbonize grids and improve reliability.

What Is Alternative Electricity?

Alternative electricity uses renewables, storage, and smart grids to deliver reliable, low-carbon power.

✅ Power electronics enable PV, wind, and storage grid integration

✅ Smart inverters support voltage, frequency, and reactive power control

✅ Microgrids improve resilience with islanding and load management

Alternative electricity power is essential if we are to find affordable and workable sources of energy before the world completely consumes its limited supply of energy sources. Many countries have started to introduce renewable energy schemes and many countries have invested money into researching and even producing different sources of electricity energy. While it is essential that we become less reliant or not reliant at all on fossil fuels, many forms of alternate energy have their disadvantages as well as their obvious advantages. The advantages of alternate energy far outweigh the disadvantages. For a primer on how modern grids convert primary energy into usable power, see this overview of how electricity is generated across different technologies today.

Wind Energy

Harnessing the power of the wind and using it to our ends is hardly a new idea. Windmills have been and still are used for many different purposes and have been for a great many years, but the improvement of turbines combined with the improved technology to turn the motion of turbine blades into an energy source has seen a marked increase in the use of electricity generating turbines. Detailed diagrams explain how turbine blades capture kinetic energy to generate electricity efficiently under varying wind speeds.

Wind power is very popular, but in order to provide a reasonable amount of power it may prove necessary to have large amounts of turbines. On windy days, and even not so windy days some turbines make a noise that many residents consider to be unbearable. Areas of open countryside are protected by conservation orders, which means they can’t be built there either and if there is no conservation order there are still protestors willing to do almost anything to stop the turbines being built. The only viable option left is to use offshore wind farms and these are being investigated, developed and planned all around the world but it takes too many turbines to create a reasonable amount of power and eventually they will have to be built inland; a matter that will be contested wherever the wind farms are proposed to be built.

Understanding capacity factors and grid integration is key to planning electricity production that balances reliability and community impacts.

Wind power is produced by converting wind energy into electricity. Electricity generation from wind has increased significantly in the United States since 1970. Wind power provided almost 5% of U.S. electricity generation in 2015. These trends mirror broader shifts in electricity generation portfolios as states pursue renewable portfolio standards.

Solar Energy

Solar energy is probably the most common form of alternate energy for everyday people and you can see solar lights ad other solar accessories in many gardens. Governments are beginning to offer grants to assist in paying for photovoltaic roof tiles; these tiles are easily fitted onto your roof and collect the heat from the sun. This heat can either be used to heat water or can even be converted into energy electric power. The advantage for the consumer is that by including a grid tie system you can actually sell unused energy back to the grid. Photovoltaic tiles take the place of ordinary roof tiles and can be perfectly blended to fit the look of the outside of your house. With solar energy you too can help the environment.

Many utilities now offer tariffs that credit exports from rooftop systems, linking household budgets to green electricity choices in a transparent way.

Solar power is derived from energy from the sun. Photovoltaic (PV) and solar-thermal electric are the two main types of technologies used to convert solar energy to electricity. PV conversion produces electricity directly from sunlight in a photovoltaic (solar) cell. Solar-thermal electric generators concentrate solar energy to heat a fluid and produce steam to drive turbines. In 2015, nearly 1% of U.S. electricity generation came from solar power. PV and solar-thermal now sit alongside other major sources of electricity in utility planning models.

Biomass

Ask most people which renewable energy source is the most widely used and they would say either wind or solar, but they’d be wrong or at least they certainly would in America. Since 2000 Biomass has been the most highly produced alternate energy in the United States. Using plant and animal material to create energy isn’t without its downfalls. It would almost certainly meet with competition from residents if biomass power stations were to be created in built up areas. The decomposing plants and animal waste creates an awful smell that is incredibly difficult to mask but it is very renewable (there’s always plants and animal waste).

Biomass is material derived from plants or animals and includes lumber and paper mill wastes, food scraps, grass, leaves, paper, and wood in municipal solid waste (garbage). Biomass is also derived from forestry and agricultural residues such as wood chips, corn cobs, and wheat straw. These materials can be burned directly in steam-electric power plants, or they can be converted to a gas that can be burned in steam generators, gas turbines, or internal combustion engine-generators. Biomass accounted for about 2% of the electricity generated in the United States in 2015.

Other renewable energy sources

These are the main three renewable energy sources that the countries of the world are creating at the moment but there are others. Whether nuclear power is a viable alternate or not is a debate that will undoubtedly rage on forever, but it is a renewable energy and some countries already have extensive capabilities to produce it. Modern technology means that nuclear power stations are safer than they’ve ever been and damage to people, animals or plantation is highly unlikely. However, it takes a long time to develop nuclear power station and even plants that are already being built may take ten years to come to fruition.

Renewable energy sources provide 13% of U.S. electricity

Hydropower, the source of about 6% of U.S. electricity generation in 2015, is a process in which flowing water is used to spin a turbine connected to a generator. Most hydropower is produced at large facilities built by the federal government, like the Grand Coulee Dam. The West has many of the largest hydroelectric dams, but there are many hydropower facilities operating all around the country. For a deeper look at how turbines and dams convert flow into water electricity, engineers often study case histories from multiple river systems.

Hydro power is used in some countries and uses the motion of waves to create energy. While it is a possibility, the amount of energy produced is minimal and the outlay to set these schemes up is quite large. Without further investigation and improvement in the techniques used it is unlikely that Hydropower will become a major player in the renewable energy world.

Geothermal power comes from heat energy buried beneath the surface of the earth. In some areas of the United States, enough heat rises close enough to the surface of the earth to heat underground water into steam, which can be tapped for use at steam-turbine plants. Geothermal power generated less than 1% of the electricity in the United States in 2015.

Related Articles

• Electricity Fundamentals

• Electricity Questions

• Electricity History

Thevenin’s Theorem simplifies complex linear circuits into a single voltage source and series resistance, making circuit analysis easier for engineers. It helps calculate current, load behavior, and equivalent resistance in practical electrical systems.

What is Thevenin’s Theorem?

Thevenin’s Theorem is a method in circuit analysis that reduces any linear electrical network to an equivalent circuit with a voltage source (Vth) in series with a resistance (Rth).

✅ Simplifies circuit analysis for engineers and students

✅ Calculates load current and voltage with accuracy

✅ Models equivalent resistance for real-world applications

Capacitors store electrical energy via a dielectric, offering capacitance for filtering, smoothing, and decoupling in AC/DC circuits, RC networks, and power supplies, spanning ceramic, film, and electrolytic types with distinct impedance profiles.

What Are Capacitors?

Capacitors store charge using a dielectric, providing capacitance for filtering, timing, and decoupling in circuits.

✅ Types: ceramic, film, tantalum, electrolytic; surface-mount or through-hole

✅ Functions: decoupling, bulk energy storage, timing, AC coupling

✅ Key specs: capacitance, voltage rating, ESR/ESL, tolerance, ripple

Capacitors for Power Factor Correction

It is desirable to add shunt capacitors in the load area to supply the lagging component of current with a positive negative charging electrons. The cost is frequently justified by the value of circuit and substation capacity released and/or reduction in losses. Installed cost of shunt capacitors is usually least on primary distribution systems and in distribution substations. For foundational context, see what a capacitor is to understand reactive power roles.

The application of shunt capacitors to a distribution feeder produces a uniform voltage boost per unit of length of line, out to its point of application. Therefore, it should be located as far out on the distribution system as practical, close to the loads requiring the kilovars. There are some cases, particularly in underground distribution, where secondary capacitors are economically justified despite their higher cost per kilovar. The placement effectiveness also depends on capacitance characteristics relative to feeder impedance.

Development of low-cost switching equipment for capacitors has made it possible to correct the power factor to a high value during peak-load conditions without overcorrection during light-load periods. This makes it possible for switched capacitors to be used for supplementary voltage control. Time clocks, temperature, electric charge voltage, current flows, and kilovar controls are common actuators for high frequency capacitor switching. Utilities typically choose among several types of capacitors to balance switching duty and reliability.

Capacitor Installations

Capacitors for primary systems are available in 50- to 300-kvar single phase units suitable for pole mounting in banks of 3 to 12 units. Capacitors should be connected to the system through fuses so that a capacitor failure will not jeopardize system reliability or result in violent case rupture. When voltage ratings limit a single unit, engineers connect capacitors in series to distribute stress effectively.

Effect of Shunt Capacitors on Voltage

Proposed permanently connected capacitor applications should be checked to make sure that the voltage to some customers will not rise too high during light-load periods. Switched capacitor applications should be checked to determine that switching the capacitor bank on or off will not cause objectionable flicker in electronics. Selecting appropriate sizes in the standard unit of capacitance helps manage voltage rise and flicker.

Effect of Shunt Capacitors on Losses

The maximum loss reduction on a feeder with distributed load is obtained by locating positively negatively capacitor banks on the feeder where the capacitor kilovars is equal to twice the load kilovars beyond the point of installation. This principle holds whether one or more than one capacitor bank is applied to a feeder. To meet kvar targets with modular banks, utilities often add capacitance in parallel so reactive output scales predictably.

Capacitor kilovars up to 70% of the total kiovar load on the feeder can be applied as one bank with little sacrifice in the maximum feeder-loss discharge reduction possible with several capacitor banks.

A rule of thumb for locating a single capacitor bank on a feeder with uniformly distributed loads is that the maximum loss reduction can be obtained when the capacitor kilovars of the bank is equal to two-thirds of the kilovar load on the feeder. This bank should be located two-thirds of the distance out on the distributed feeder portion for object charging. Deviation of the capacitor bank location from the point of maximum loss reduction by as much as 10 per cent of the total feeder length does not appreciably affect the loss benefit. Therefore, in practice, in order to make the most out of the capacitor's loss reduction and voltage benefits, it is best to apply the capacitor bank just beyond the optimum loss-reduction location.

Batteries and capacitors seem similar as they both store and release electrical energy. However, there are crucial differences between them that impact their potential electronic applications due to how they function differently, depending on insulator material.

Supercapacitors

A capacitor battery aligns the molecules of a dielectric across an electric field to store energy. A supercapacitor aligns the charging of an electrolyte on either side of an insulator to store a double-layer charge.

Electrolytic capacitors consist of two or more conductive capacitors plate, separated by a dielectric. When an electric current enters the capacitor, the dielectric stops the flow and a charge builds up and is stored in an electric field between the metallic plates. Each capacitor is designed to have a particular capacitance (energy storage). When a capacitor is connected to an external circuit, a current will rapidly discharge. Plate area, separation, and dielectric constant together determine capacitance and thus energy density.

In a supercapacitor, there is no dielectric between conducting plates; rather, there is an electrolyte and a thin insulator such as cardboard or paper. When a current is introduced to the supercapacitor, ions build on either side of the insulator to generate a double layer of charge, no matter the capacitor charged. Supercapacitors are limited to low voltages, but very high capacitance frequencies, as a high voltage would break down the electrolyte. 

Batteries

There are different types of capacitor batteries, which detemine the capacitance of a capacitor. Different battery types are distinguished by their chemical makeup. The chemical unit, called the cell, contains three main parts; a positive terminal called the cathode, negative terminal called the anode, and the electrolyte. Batteries store electric energy. The battery charges and discharges through a chemical reaction that generates a voltage. The store of charge in the battery is able to provide a consistent DC voltage. In rechargeable batteries, the chemical energy that is converted into electricity can be reversed using an outside electrical energy to restore the charge of capacitors storing power in the batteries.

Related Articles

• Electricity Fundamentals

• Electricity Questions

• Electricity History