History of Electricity

Ben Franklin’s electricity experiment in 1752 used a kite and key to prove that lightning is electrical in nature. His discovery helped lay the foundation for the study of electricity and influenced the development of lightning rods and electrical theory.

What is: Ben Franklin Electricity?

Ben Franklin’s electricity experiment significantly altered the scientific understanding of natural forces.

✅ Proved lightning is a form of electricity using a kite experiment

✅ Advanced early knowledge of electrical conduction and charges

✅ Led to inventions like the lightning rod and surge protection

Ben Franklin was a great American inventor and innovator. His electrical experiments formed the basis for other inventions that we still use today. Explore deeper insights into the debate around who invented electricity and who discovered electricity, where Franklin’s name often takes center stage.

Benjamin Franklin began studying electricity after attending a lecture about it in Scotland in 1743. Five years later, he sent a letter on it to the Royal Society. In 1751, he published his book of experiments on electrical currents in England. To understand where Ben Franklin fits into the broader context, refer to a timeline of the history of electricity, which outlines key discoveries and milestones leading up to and following his famous experiment.

While visiting Boston in 1746, Franklin witnessed some electrical experiments performed by Mr. Spence. Shortly after his return to Philadelphia, the Library Company received a glass tube from Mr. Collinson, a member of the Royal Society from London, along with instructions for conducting experiments with it. With this tube, Ben Franklin initiated a series of electrical experiments that led to discoveries that seem to have had a more profound material impact on the world's industries than any other human intellect discovery. Our page on how Ben Franklin discovered electricity provides more detail on his innovative kite-and-key test and its lasting influence on electrical science.

His electricity experiments included an infamous event in the summer of 1752 when he made a kite with silk, which he sent up with a cord made of hemp. To avoid damaging the paper in the rain, he used silk instead of paper. At the top end was an iron point, and at the bottom part of the string was a key. Accompanied by his son, Ben Franklin raised the kite while staying under a shed to avoid getting wet. The long wait almost made him give up until he noticed loose fibres on the string. When his knuckle touched the key, he received a strong spark with an electrifying sensation. The key drew repeated sparks that charged the vial, and all the experiments made yielded electricity. Learn more about the evolution of power in our article on the history of electricity, which includes Franklin's work alongside other scientific pioneers.

He was very smart. He was not afraid to experiment. When a thought popped in his head, like lightning is a source of electricity, he had the determination to prove it. The story is that he and three of his friends were trying to analyze static electricity and experiment with it. Two of his friends got electrocuted while they were working on this, so Franklin decided to do the kite experiment alone. Franklin’s early theories set the stage for future inventors like Thomas Edison and electricity, who later transformed those ideas into practical technologies.

Ben Franklin's experiments on electricity laid the foundation for many inventions, including electricity, batteries, the incandescent light bulb, electromagnetic fields, generators, transformers, and other related items. His experiments became the origin of the "plus" and "minus" nomenclature that are still in use today. The positive and the negative charges helped identify the atmospheric and frictional electricity.

Ben Franklin is rightly considered the principal founder of the scientific study of electrical phenomena. These Letters are the reports of his experiments, the theories he formed to explain the results of these experiments, and more speculative theories he extrapolated from his observations and analysis of his findings.

The single most important discovery noted in these letters is that of polarity, which means that he found all electrical potentials were not equivalent, but could be observed holding either of two opposite charges. To these he assigned the names we still use, positive and negative. Unfortunately, from our point of view, he assigned them in the opposite sense to our understanding -- "positive" meaning a deficit of free electrons -- which is why we now call the electron a negatively charged particle. The broader history of electricity reveals how Franklin’s contributions intersected with global discoveries across centuries.

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Electricity wasn’t invented, but discovered over centuries. Key contributors include Franklin (lightning), Volta (battery), Faraday (magnetism), and Tesla (AC power). Modern electricity is the result of many scientific advances in understanding and harnessing electrical energy. Learn more about the history of electricity and how it powers our modern world.

Who Invented Electricity?

Electricity wasn’t invented—it was discovered and developed over centuries. Early pioneers such as Benjamin Franklin, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, and Nikola Tesla each contributed key breakthroughs in understanding and harnessing electrical energy, leading to the electric power systems we rely on today.

✅ Electricity was discovered, not invented—developed through centuries of scientific progress.

✅ Key figures include Franklin (lightning experiments), Volta (battery invention), and Tesla (AC power).

✅ Modern electricity is a result of combined discoveries in electrical theory and engineering.

Many people think Benjamin Franklin invented electricity with his famous kite-flying experiments in 1752. Franklin is famous for tying a key to a kite string during a thunderstorm, proving that static electricity and lightning were indeed the same thing. However, that isn’t the whole story of electricity. Benjamin Franklin’s experiments with lightning helped shape early ideas of static electricity, eventually linking it to natural electrical phenomena. 

Ancient Observations to Scientific Discovery

The roots of electrical knowledge date back over 2,500 years. Around 600 BC, the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus observed that rubbing amber with fur caused it to attract light objects—an early description of static electricity. But real scientific progress didn’t begin until the 17th century.

In 1600, English scientist William Gilbert conducted systematic studies on magnetic and electric forces. He coined the term electricity from the Greek word elektron (amber) and is often called the father of modern electricity.

Soon after, Otto von Guericke developed one of the first machines to generate static electricity using a rotating sulfur globe. Over the next decades, scientists across Europe improved these devices, setting the stage for real experimentation.

Who Was Benjamin Franklin and What Did He Discover?

Electricity was not “discovered” at all. Electricity has always been a part of nature, in the form of static electricity, discharging to the earth, in the form of lightning, or when rubbing two electrically charged materials. In fact, the truth is that “electricity” in the form of electric power was invented when it was discovered that electricity could be generated in an electrical generator and then transmitted as an electrical current through wires. Necessity is the mother of invention, they say, and it is just as true in the case of electricity. When it comes to the “invention of electricity”, people wanted a cheap and safe way to light their homes, and scientists thought electricity might be a way. The foundation of our modern understanding of what is electricity was laid over centuries by pioneers like Franklin, Volta, Faraday, and Tesla.

Benjamin Frankin

When it comes to the invention of electricity or the discovery of energy power, it is actually a long story spanning a considerable amount of time. Through scientific investigation, electrical technology evolved from each experiment. Electrical light is a common phenomenon in the modern world, often in the form of lightning, but the question of who invented electricity is actually about the discovery of electricity. Electricity was common in the natural world, but electric power was the result of an experiment. 

Electricity Discoveries and Inventions

From the writings of Thales of Miletus, it appears that Westerners knew as long ago as 600 B.C. that amber becomes charged by rubbing. There was little real progress until the English scientist William Gilbert in 1600 described the electrification of many substances and coined the term electricity from the Greek word for amber. As a result, Gilbert is called the father of modern electricity, and in 1660, Otto von Guericke invented a crude machine for producing static electricity.

It was a ball of sulphur, rotated by a crank with one hand and rubbed with the other. Successors, such as Francis Hauksbee, made improvements that provided experimenters with a ready source of static electricity. The development of electrical components like the capacitor and resistor played a vital role in turning raw discoveries into usable technology. Today's highly developed descendant of these early machines is the Van de Graaf generator, which is sometimes used as a particle accelerator. Robert Boyle realized that attraction and repulsion were mutual and that electric force was transmitted through a vacuum. Stephen Gray distinguished between conductors and nonconductors. C. F. Du Fay recognized two kinds of electricity, which Benjamin Franklin and Ebenezer Kinnersley of Philadelphia later named positive and negative.

Progress quickened after the Leyden jar was invented in 1745 by Pieter van Musschenbroek. The Leyden jar stored static electricity, which could be discharged all at once. In 1747, William Watson discharged a Leyden jar through a circuit, and comprehension of the current and circuit started a new field of experimentation. Henry Cavendish, by measuring the conductivity of materials (he compared the simultaneous shocks he received by discharging Leyden jars through the materials), and Charles A. Coulomb, by expressing mathematically the attraction of electrified bodies, began the quantitative study of electricity.

A new interest in electric current began with the invention of the battery. Luigi Galvani had noticed (1786) that a discharge of static electricity made a frog's leg jerk. Consequent experimentation produced what was a simple electron cell using the fluids of the leg as an electrolyte and the muscle as a circuit and indicator. Galvani believed the leg supplied electricity, but Alessandro Volta disagreed, and he constructed the voltaic pile, an early type of battery, as proof. Continuous current from batteries paved the way for the discovery of G. S. Ohm's law, which relates current, voltage (electromotive force), and resistance, as well as J. P. Joule's law of electrical heating. Ohm's law and the rules discovered later by G. R. Kirchhoff regarding the sum of the currents and the sum of the voltages in a circuit are the fundamental principles for making circuit calculations. The invention of devices such as the voltmeter and multimeter enabled precise measurement and control of electric current, pushing experimental science into practical engineering. Today’s understanding of electricity also depends on key principles, such as Ohm’s Law, which relates voltage, current, and resistance, concepts derived from the foundational work of 19th-century physicists.

A Different Kind of Power: The Battery

Learning how to produce and use electricity was not an easy task. For a long time, there was no dependable source of electricity for experiments. Finally, in 1800, Alessandro Volta, an Italian scientist, made a great discovery. He soaked paper in salt water, placed zinc and copper on opposite sides of the paper, and watched the chemical reaction produce an electric current. Volta had created the first electric cell.

By connecting many of these cells together, Volta was able to “string a current” and create a battery. It is in honour of Volta that we rate batteries in volts. Finally, a safe and dependable source of electricity was available, making it easy for scientists to study electricity.

Alessandro Volta

Michael Faraday and the Invention of the Electric Generator

An English scientist, Michael Faraday, now known for Faraday's Law, was the first one to realize that an electric current could be produced by passing a magnet through a copper wire. It was an amazing discovery. Almost all the electricity we use today is generated in giant power plants using magnets and coils of copper wire. Both the electric generator and electric motor are based on this principle. A generator converts motion energy into electricity. A motor converts electrical energy into motion energy.

In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that a magnetic field surrounds a current-carrying wire. Within two years, André Marie Ampère had formulated several electromagnetic laws in mathematical terms, D. F. Arago had invented the electromagnet, and Michael Faraday had devised a rudimentary form of electric motor. Practical application of a motor had to wait 10 years, however, until Faraday (and earlier, independently, Joseph Henry) invented the electric generator with which to power the motor. A year after Faraday's laboratory approximation of the generator, Hippolyte Pixii constructed a hand-driven model. From then on, engineers took over from the scientists, and a slow development followed; the first power stations were built 50 years later. Alessandro Volta’s invention of the battery introduced the world to electrical energy as a usable, stored source of power.

Michael Faraday

In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell started a different path of development with equations that described the electromagnetic field, and he predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves travelling at the speed of light. Heinrich R. Hertz confirmed this prediction experimentally, and Marconi first utilized these waves in the development of radio (1895). John Ambrose Fleming invented (1904) the diode rectifier vacuum tube as a detector for the Marconi radio. Three years later, Lee De Forest transformed the diode into an amplifier by adding a third electrode, marking the beginning of electronics. Theoretical understanding became more complete in 1897 with the discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson. In 1910–11, Ernest R. Rutherford and his assistants learned the distribution of charge within the atom. Robert Millikan measured the charge on a single electron in 1913. Michael Faraday's discoveries with magnets and coils paved the way for the development of the electricity generator, a key component of modern power systems.

Thomas Edison and the Birth of Electric Lighting

Thomas Alva Edison is one of the greatest inventors of all time and is normally credited with inventing the light bulb (along with Nikola Tesla). He arrived in Boston in 1868. In Boston, he found men who knew something of electric current, and, as he worked at night and cut short his sleeping hours, he found time for study. He bought and studied Faraday's works. Presently came the first of his multitudinous inventions, an automatic vote recorder, for which he received a patent in 1868. This necessitated a trip to Washington, which he made on borrowed money, but he was unable to arouse any interest in the device. "After the vote recorder," he says, "I invented a stock ticker, and started a ticker service in Boston; had thirty or forty subscribers and operated from a room over the Gold Exchange." Edison attempted to sell this machine in New York, but he returned to Boston without success. He then invented a duplex telegraph by which two messages could be sent simultaneously, but at a test, the machine failed due to the assistant's incompetence.

Thomas Alva Edison

Penniless and in debt, Thomas Edison arrived again in New York in 1869. But now fortune favored him. The Gold Indicator Company was a concern that furnished its subscribers, via telegraph, with the current gold prices on the Stock Exchange. The company's instrument was out of order. By a lucky chance, Edison was on the spot to repair it, which he did successfully. This led to his appointment as superintendent at a salary of $300 a month. When a change in the ownership of the company led to his dismissal from the position he held, he formed, along with Franklin L. Pope, the partnership of Pope, Edison, Current, and Company, the first firm of electrical engineers in the United States.

Thomas Edison immediately set up a shop in Newark. He improved the system of automatic telegraphy (telegraph machine) in use at the time and introduced it to England. He experimented with submarine cables and developed a system of quadruplex telegraphy, in which one wire was used to perform the work of four. These two inventions were bought by Jay Gould, owner of the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company. Gould paid 30,000 dollars for the quadruplex system but refused to pay for the automatic telegraph. Gould had bought the Western Union, his only competition. "He then," wrote Edison, "repudiated his contract with the automatic telegraph people, and they never received a cent for their wires or patents, and I lost three years of very hard labour. But I never harboured any grudge against him because he was so skilled in his line, and as long as my part was successful, the money was secondary to me. When Gould got the Western Union, I knew no further progress in telegraphy was possible, and I went into other lines."

In 1879, Thomas Edison focused on inventing a practical light bulb, one that would last a long time before burning out. The problem was finding a strong material for the filament, the small wire inside the bulb that conducts electricity. Finally, Edison used ordinary cotton thread that had been soaked in carbon. This filament didn’t burn at all— it became incandescent; that is, it glowed.

The next challenge was developing an electrical system that could provide people with a practical source of energy to power these new lights. Understanding an electrical circuit became essential as inventors like Edison and Tesla developed systems to power homes and cities. Edison wanted a way to make electricity both practical and inexpensive. He designed and built the first electric power plant capable of producing electricity and distributing it to people’s homes.

Edison’s Pearl Street Power Station started up its generator on September 4, 1882, in New York City. About 85 customers in lower Manhattan received enough power to light 5,000 lamps. His customers paid a lot for their electricity, though. In today’s dollars, the electricity costs $5.00 per kilowatt-hour! Today, electricity costs approximately 12.7 cents per kilowatt-hour for residential customers, about 11 cents for commercial customers, and around 7 cents per kilowatt-hour for industrial customers.

The War of Currents: Tesla vs Edison

The turning point of the electric age came a few years later with the development of AC (alternating current) power systems. Croatian scientist Nikola Tesla, commonly known as the father of wireless electricity, came to the United States to work with Thomas Edison. After a falling out, Tesla discovered the rotating magnetic field and developed the alternating current electrical system, which is used widely today. Tesla teamed up with engineer and businessman George Westinghouse to patent the AC system and provide the nation with power that could travel long distances – a direct competition with Thomas Edison’s DC system. Tesla later went on to form the Tesla Electric Company, invent the Tesla Coil, which is still used in science labs and in radio technology today, and design the system used to generate electricity at Niagara Falls. 

Nikola Tesla

Now using AC, power plants could transport electricity much farther than before. While Edison’s DC (direct current) plant could only transport electricity within one square mile of his Pearl Street Power Station, the Niagara Falls plant was able to transport electricity over 200 miles! The famous battle between Edison’s DC system and Tesla’s AC innovation is central to the evolution of electric power systems and continues to shape how electricity is transmitted today.

Electricity didn’t have an easy beginning. While many people were thrilled with all the new inventions, some people were afraid of electricity and wary of bringing it into their homes. They were afraid to let their children near this strange new power source. Many social critics of the day viewed electricity as a means to a simpler, less hectic way of life. Poets commented that electric lights were less romantic than gaslights. Perhaps they were right, but the new electric age could not be dimmed.

In 1920, approximately 2% of U.S. energy was used to generate electricity. By 2025, with the increasing use of technologies powered by electricity, the figure was almost 40 percent.

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A timeline of history of electricity highlights key discoveries from ancient static electricity to modern power grids. Explore milestones from Thales to Tesla, Edison to smart grid innovations, showing how electricity evolved into a critical force shaping today’s technology and life.

What is a Timeline Of History Of Electricity?

A historical timeline tracing the development of electricity reveals how science and innovation transformed the world:

✅ Key milestones from ancient discoveries to modern-day applications

✅ Contributions from pioneers like Faraday, Edison, and Tesla

✅ Evolution of power systems, from early experiments to smart grids

This article explains the history of electricity clearly—read more here.

Milestones in the History of Electricity

The story of electricity is not one of a single invention, but a fascinating chronicle of gradual discovery and relentless innovation. Humankind's early encounters with phenomena like magnetism and static electricity date back millennia before their distinct yet interconnected natures were truly grasped. It was a journey of incremental insights, punctuated by groundbreaking leaps forward that progressively illuminated the forces shaping our modern world. 

This timeline serves as a detailed chronological resource, highlighting pivotal events, discoveries, and theoretical advancements in the fields of static electricity, current electricity, electricity and magnetism, and their eventual unification, from ancient observations to the foundational period of modern electrical science. The story of who invented electricity is filled with surprising twists, from ancient discoveries to the groundbreaking work of pioneers like Franklin, Faraday, and Tesla.

Ancient Discoveries & Early Observations (Pre-600 BC – 1500s AD)

• c. 900 BC - Lodestone Attraction: Accounts, possibly legendary, describe Magnus, a Greek shepherd, observing black stones (lodestones) attracting iron, leading to the name of the region Magnesia. This marks some of the earliest observations of magnetism.

• c. 600 BC - Static Electricity: Thales of Miletus (Greek philosopher) describes how amber (Greek: elektron), when rubbed with cat fur, attracts light objects like feathers. This is one of the earliest documented observations of static electricity.

• 1269 - Magnetic Poles: Petrus Peregrinus of Picardy, Italy, publishes "Epistola de magnete," detailing his discovery that natural spherical magnets (lodestones) possess two poles and that magnetic needles align along lines connecting these poles.

The Dawn of Electrical Science (1600s – 1700s)

• 1600 - Coining "Electricity": William Gilbert, English physician to Queen Elizabeth I, publishes "De Magnete, magneticisque corporibus," formally coining the term "electricity" from the Greek elektron. He also introduces terms like electric force, magnetic pole, and electric attraction, and theorizes an "electric fluid" liberated by rubbing.

• c. 1620 - Electrical Repulsion: Niccolo Cabeo (Italian philosopher and theologian) observes and documents that electricity can be not only attractive but also repulsive.

• 1630 - Fluorescence: Vincenzo Cascariolo (Bolognese shoemaker) discovers the phenomenon of fluorescence.

• 1638 - Aether Theory of Light: René Descartes (French philosopher) theorizes that light is a pressure wave travelling through a pervasive aether, proposing properties for this fluid that allow for calculations of light's reflection and refraction.

• 1644 - Vortex Theory of Magnetism: René Descartes proposes that magnetic poles result from a spinning vortex of one of his theoretical fluids, a theory that remained popular for a century.

• 1657 - Principle of Least Time: Pierre de Fermat (French mathematician) demonstrates that Fermat's Principle of Least Time can explain the reflection and refraction of light, laying the groundwork for wave optics.

• 1660 - Static Electricity Generator: Otto von Guericke (German physicist) invents an early machine capable of producing static electricity, a rotating sulphur ball. See how the electricity generator emerged from Faraday’s work on electromagnetic induction.

• 1665 - Diffraction of Light: Francesco Maria Grimaldi (Italian physicist) posthumously reports his discovery and names the phenomenon of diffraction, the bending of light around opaque objects.

• 1667 - Newton's Rings & Wavefronts: Robert Hooke (English scientist) reports observations of interference rings (later called Newton's Rings) and develops a wavefront derivation for reflection and refraction.

• 1671 - Particle Theory of Light: Isaac Newton (English physicist) argues against light being a vibration of the aether, preferring it to be something capable of travelling through it, leaning towards a corpuscular (particle) theory.

• 1675 - Speed of Light (Astronomical): Olaf Roemer (Danish astronomer) uses the eclipses of Jupiter's moons to make the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light (2.2×108 m/s).

• 1678 - Huygens' Principle: Christiaan Huygens (Dutch physicist) introduces his famous principle of wavefront construction to explain light propagation, particularly double refraction.

• 1729 - Electrical Conduction & Surface Charge: Stephen Gray (English electrician) demonstrates that electricity can be conducted through wires over significant distances and that electric charge resides on the surface of electrified objects.

• 1733 - Two Types of Electricity: Charles François du Fay (French chemist) discovers that electricity exists in two kinds, which he terms resinous (-) and vitreous (+).

• 1745 - Leyden Jar (Capacitor): Pieter van Musschenbroek (Dutch physicist) invents the Leyden Jar, the first device capable of storing significant amounts of static electricity (capacitor). Georg Von Kleist independently made a similar discovery earlier the same year.

• 1747 - One-Fluid Theory & Conservation of Charge: Benjamin Franklin (American polymath) proposes the one-fluid theory of electricity, where a single fluid flows, and establishes the principle of conservation of charge. He also labels the flowing fluid as "positive," an convention that persists. Discover how Ben Franklin discovered electricity. Explore the myths and facts about Ben Franklin’s electricity experiments.

• 1748 - First Fluorescent Light: Sir William Watson (English physicist) creates the first glow discharge using an electrostatic machine and a vacuum pump, effectively the first "fluorescent light bulb."

• 1750 - Magnetic Force Law (Inverse Square): John Michell (English natural philosopher) determines that the force between magnetic poles follows an inverse square law.

• 1759 - Electrical Induction: Francis Ulrich Theodore Aepinus (German natural philosopher) demonstrates that electrical effects are a combination of fluid flow and action at a distance, and discovers charging by induction.

• 1766 - Inverse Square Law of Electrostatic Force: Joseph Priestley (English chemist), inspired by Franklin, deduces that the electric force law is inverse square, analogous to gravity, by observing no charge inside hollow charged vessels.

• c. 1775 - Capacitance & Resistance (Unpublished): Henry Cavendish (English scientist) develops the concepts of capacitance and resistance, though his work remains largely unpublished until 1879 by Lord Kelvin.  See our article what is capacitance through the invention of the Leyden jar and the later development of capacitors.

• 1780 - Animal Electricity: Luigi Galvani (Italian physician) observes that dead frog legs twitch when touched by dissimilar metals, coining the term "animal electricity" to describe what we now understand as nerve impulses.

• 1785 - Coulomb's Law: Charles Augustin Coulomb (French physicist) uses a torsion balance to experimentally verify that the electric force law is inverse square (now known as Coulomb's Law). He also proposes a two-fluid theory.

• 1793 - First Electric Battery (Voltaic Pile): Alessandro Volta (Italian physicist) invents the voltaic pile, the first true electric battery, capable of producing a steady, continuous electric current, by stacking discs of dissimilar metals separated by wet cardboard.

The Age of Electromagnetism & Generation (1800s – Mid-1800s)

• 1800 - Electrolysis of Water: William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle (English chemists) use Volta's pile to perform the electrolysis of water, separating it into hydrogen and oxygen.

• 1801 - Wave Theory of Light Progresses: Thomas Young (English polymath) provides a wave-based explanation for Newton's rings and interference phenomena, strengthening the wave theory of light.

• 1807 - Chemical-Electrical Connection: Humphrey Davy (English chemist) shows that the voltaic pile's action is fundamentally chemical, linking chemical and electrical effects.

• 1808 - Polarization of Light: Etienne Louis Malus (French engineer) discovers the polarization of light, observing that light reflected at certain angles or passed through crystals has a preferred orientation, posing a challenge for existing wave theories.

• 1812 - Faraday Begins Work: Michael Faraday (English scientist) begins his legendary career as a scientific assistant to Sir Humphrey Davy.

• 1813 - Gauss's Law (Rediscovery): Karl Friedrich Gauss (German mathematician) rediscovers the divergence theorem, which later becomes known as Gauss's Law in electromagnetism.

• 1816 - Transverse Waves of Light: François Arago and Augustin Fresnel (French physicists) demonstrate that light of differing polarizations cannot interfere, leading Thomas Young to suggest that light waves must be transverse (vibrating perpendicular to the direction of travel), a crucial insight that ultimately solidifies the wave theory.

• 1820 - Electromagnetism Discovered (Oersted): Hans Christian Ørsted (Danish physicist) discovers that an electric current in a wire produces a magnetic field, causing a compass needle to deflect, establishing the fundamental link between electricity and magnetism.

• 1820 - Ampère's Force Law: André-Marie Ampère (French physicist) quickly followed Ørsted's discovery by demonstrating that parallel electric currents exert attractive or repulsive forces on each other. He develops a mathematical framework for electrodynamics. Learn how Ampere’s Law connects current and magnetic fields.

• 1820 - Biot-Savart Law: Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart (French physicists) quantify the magnetic force exerted by a current-carrying wire, leading to the Biot-Savart Law. Understand the concept behind the Biot-Savart Law.

• 1821 - First Electric Motor: Michael Faraday invents the first electric motor, demonstrating continuous rotational motion from an electric current interacting with a magnetic field.

• 1822 - Thermoelectric Effect (Seebeck): Thomas Johann Seebeck (German physicist) discovers the thermoelectric effect, showing that a temperature difference in a circuit of dissimilar metals can generate an electric current.

• 1826 - Ohm's Law: Georg Simon Ohm (German physicist) establishes the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit, now known as Ohm's Law (V=IR). His work clarifies the concept of voltage as the driving force for current. Explore Ohm’s Law and how it connects current, voltage, and resistance. Use the Ohm’s Law formula to calculate electrical values easily. See how the discovery of electrical resistance helped shape our understanding of how materials impede current.

• 1831 - Electromagnetic Induction (Faraday): Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction, showing that a changing magnetic field can induce an electric current in a nearby circuit. This fundamental principle underpins electric generators and transformers.

• 1832 - Independent Discovery of Induced Currents: Joseph Henry (American scientist) independently discovers induced currents, similar to Faraday's work.

• 1833 - Quantized Electric Charge (Early Idea): Michael Faraday postulates that a "certain absolute quantity of the electric power [charge] is associated with each atom of matter," hinting at the concept of quantized electric charge.

• 1834 - Self-Inductance: Faraday discovers self-inductance, where a changing current in a circuit induces an electromotive force within the same circuit.

• 1834 - Peltier Effect: Jean Charles Peltier (French physicist) discovers the Peltier effect, the inverse of the Seebeck effect, where current flow in a circuit of dissimilar metals causes heating or cooling at their junctions.

• 1834 - Lenz's Law: Emil Lenz (Russian physicist) formulates Lenz's Law, which states that the direction of an induced current is always such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it. This article explores Lenz’s Law and electromagnetic induction.

• 1837 - Dielectric Constant: Michael Faraday introduces the concept of the dielectric constant, describing how insulating materials affect electric fields.

• 1839 - Fuel Cell: Sir William Grove (Welsh judge and inventor) develops the first fuel cell, generating electricity through the chemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen.

• 1841 - Energy Conservation in Circuits: James Prescott Joule (English physicist) demonstrates that energy is conserved in electrical circuits, linking electrical energy, thermal heating, and chemical transformations. Get a better grasp of electric circuits and their key components, such as conductors, resistors, and capacitors.

• 1845 - Faraday Rotation: Michael Faraday discovers the Faraday effect (or Faraday rotation), showing that the plane of polarization of light can be rotated by a magnetic field, providing early evidence of the relationship between light and electromagnetism.

• 1846 - Diamagnetism: Michael Faraday discovers diamagnetism, a form of magnetism exhibited by substances that are weakly repelled by a magnetic field. Get a deeper understanding of Faraday’s Law of Induction.

• 1847 - Conservation of Energy (Helmholtz): Hermann von Helmholtz (German physicist) emphatically states the principle of conservation of energy, extending it to various forms including electrical, voltaic, and magnetic.

Towards Unified Theory & Modern Power (Mid-1800s – Early 1900s)

• 1848-1849 - Kirchhoff's Laws & Potential: Gustav Kirchhoff (German physicist) extends Ohm's work, providing his famous laws for circuit networks and formally showing that Ohm's "electroscopic force" is identical to the electrostatic potential.

• 1849 - More Accurate Speed of Light: Hippolyte Fizeau (French physicist) uses a rapidly rotating toothed wheel to measure the speed of light (3.1×108 m/s) with greater precision.

• 1850 - Magnetic Permeability & Susceptibility: William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (Scottish physicist) introduces the concepts of magnetic permeability and magnetic susceptibility.

• 1853 - RLC Circuit Theory: William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) provides the theoretical description for the RLC circuit, explaining the oscillations observed in capacitive discharges.

• 1854 - Telegraphy Equation (Partial): William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) derives a partial telegraphy equation, highlighting the importance of capacitance in signal speed along transmission lines.

• 1855 - Field Theory Mathematical Framework: James Clerk Maxwell (Scottish mathematician and physicist) writes a memoir attempting to merge Faraday's intuitive field lines with Thomson's mathematical analogies, laying the groundwork for a comprehensive field theory.

• 1857 - Full Telegraphy Equation & Speed of Light Connection: Gustav Kirchhoff derives the full telegraphy equation (including inductance), recognizing that for low resistance, the signal propagates at a speed very close to the speed of light, making him the first to suggest this profound connection. Get familiar with Kirchhoff’s Law and how it applies to circuit analysis.

• 1861 - Mechanical Model of EM Field: James Clerk Maxwell publishes his mechanical model of the electromagnetic field, where magnetic fields correspond to rotating vortices and electric fields to elastic displacements, leading him to derive the wave equation for electromagnetic waves fully.

• 1864 - Maxwell's Equations: James Clerk Maxwell presents his seminal memoir, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field," which articulates the complete set of Maxwell's Equations, mathematically unifying electricity, magnetism, and light. He famously concludes that "light consists of the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena."

From Theory to Application – The Modern Age of Electricity (Late 1800s – Mid-1900s)

• 1873 – Electrical Units Standardized: The British Association for the Advancement of Science proposes standardized electrical units, laying the foundation for what would become the SI system.

• 1879 – Practical Electric Lighting: Thomas Edison (American inventor) successfully tests the first long-lasting carbon filament light bulb, making electric lighting commercially viable. Learn more about Thomas Edison’s role in electricity.

• 1881 – First International Electrical Congress: Held in Paris, this congress leads to the international agreement on electrical units and terminology.

• 1882 – First Power Station: Edison opens the Pearl Street Station in New York City, the first commercial power station, marking the beginning of centralized electricity generation and distribution.

• 1883 – Tesla's AC Induction Motor Design: Nikola Tesla (Serbian-American inventor) develops his first design for an alternating current (AC) induction motor, which would later revolutionize electric power systems. Learn how alternating current became the dominant form of power transmission thanks to pioneers like Tesla and Westinghouse.

• 1887 – Tesla Patents AC Motor: Tesla files patents for his AC polyphase motor and transmission system, introducing an efficient and scalable alternative to Edison's DC systems.

• 1888 – Westinghouse Adopts AC: George Westinghouse licenses Tesla’s AC system and begins developing AC-based power distribution, initiating the "War of Currents" between AC and DC.

• 1891 – Tesla’s High-Frequency Coil: Tesla invents the Tesla Coil, enabling high-voltage, high-frequency experiments that advance radio and wireless technologies.

• 1893 – AC Triumphs at Chicago World's Fair: Westinghouse and Tesla's AC system is chosen to power the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, proving the efficiency and safety of alternating current to the public.

• 1895 – First Hydroelectric Plant at Niagara Falls: Tesla and Westinghouse complete the world’s first large-scale hydroelectric power plant, transmitting AC electricity over 20 miles to Buffalo, New York.

• 1897 – Electron Discovered: J.J. Thomson identifies the electron as a subatomic particle, deepening understanding of electric current.

• 1904 – Thermionic Valve (Vacuum Tube): John Ambrose Fleming invents the diode vacuum tube, which enables rectification and early radio transmission.

• 1906 – Triode Amplifier: Lee De Forest adds a control grid to the vacuum tube, creating the triode—an amplifier that lays the groundwork for electronics and radio broadcasting.

• 1920s–1930s – National Grid Development: Countries like the UK and the USA began building interconnected electrical grids, making electricity widely accessible.

• 1931 – Discovery of the Neutron: James Chadwick’s discovery of the neutron contributed to later advances in nuclear power.

• 1947 – Invention of the Transistor: John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley invent the transistor at Bell Labs, initiating the modern era of electronics and digital technology.

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Thomas Edison electricity revolutionized the modern world. He developed the first practical electric light bulb. He built the first power grid, enabling the widespread distribution and use of electric power in homes and industries, laying the foundation for the electric age.

What is Thomas Edison Electricity?

Thomas Edison’s contributions to electricity transformed everyday life through practical inventions and electrical systems.

✅ Invented the first practical electric light bulb

✅ Built the first commercial power distribution system

✅ Helped usher in the modern electrical era

Early Life and Telegraphy Roots

Thomas Edison and Electricity are almost synonymous. He was one of the most prolific inventors in history, born in Milan, Ohio, on February 11, 1847. With little formal education, Thomas Edison gained experience as a telegraph operator. Then he went on to invent several electricity-inspired devices, including the phonograph, the incandescent light bulb, and a precursor to the movie projector. In West Orange, New Jersey, he also established the world's first industrial research laboratory, where he employed dozens of workers to investigate a given subject systematically. However, perhaps his greatest contribution to the modern industrial world came from his work in electricity. He developed a comprehensive electrical distribution system for light and power, established the world's first electricity generation plant in New York City, and invented the alkaline battery, the first electric railroad, and numerous other electricity-related inventions that laid the groundwork for the modern electric world. He continued to work into his eighties and acquired a record 1,093 patents in his lifetime. He died in West Orange on October 18, 1931. To explore the events leading up to Edison's innovations, see A Timeline of the History of Electricity, which highlights key discoveries from ancient times to the modern grid.

Carbon Transmitter and Early Innovations

For Thomas Edison, Electricity was his passion. At the age of 29, he began work on the carbon transmitter, which ultimately made Alexander Graham Bell's remarkable new "articulating" telephone (which, by today's standards, sounded more like someone trying to talk through a kazoo than a telephone) audible enough for practical use. Interestingly, at one point during this intense period, Thomas Edison was as close to inventing the telephone as Bell was to inventing the phonograph. Nevertheless, shortly after Thomas Edison moved his laboratory to Menlo Park, N.J. in 1876, he invented - in 1877 - the first phonograph. Edison's work built upon earlier breakthroughs, including Ben Franklin’s discovery of electricity using his famous kite experiment.

The Invention of the Practical Light Bulb

In 1879, extremely disappointed by the fact that Bell had beaten him in the race to patent the first authentic transmission of the human voice, Thomas Edison now "one-upped" all of his competition by inventing the first commercially practical incandescent electric light bulb.

Building the First Power Grid

And if that wasn't enough to forever seal his unequalled importance in technological history, he came up with an invention that, in terms of its collective effect upon mankind, has had more impact than any other. In 1883 and 1884, while travelling from his research lab to the patent office, he introduced the world's first economically viable system for centrally generating and distributing electric light, heat, and power. (See "Greatest Achievement?") Powerfully instrumental in impacting the world we know today, even his harshest critics grant that it was a Herculean achievement that only he was capable of bringing about at this specific point in history.

Menlo Park and the First Research Lab

By 1887, Thomas Edison was recognized for establishing the world's first full-fledged research and development center in West Orange, New Jersey. An amazing enterprise, its significance is as much misunderstood as his work in developing the first practical centralized power system. Regardless, within a year, this remarkable operation had become the largest scientific testing laboratory in the world.

Motion Pictures and General Electric

In 1890, Edison immersed himself in developing the first Vitascope, which would ultimately lead to the creation of the first silent motion pictures.

By 1892, his Edison General Electric Co. had fully merged with another firm to become the great General Electric Corporation, in which he was a major shareholder.

Later Inventions and Innovations

At the turn of the century, Edison invented the first practical dictaphone, mimeograph, and storage battery. After creating the "kinetoscope" and the first silent film in 1904, he went on to introduce The Great Train Robbery in 1903, a ten-minute clip that marked his first attempt to blend audio with silent moving images to produce "talking pictures."

Global Fame and Final Years

By now, Edison was being hailed worldwide as "The Wizard of Menlo Park," "The Father of the Electricity Age," and "The Greatest Inventor Who Ever Lived." Naturally, when World War I began, he was asked by the U.S. government to focus his genius on creating defensive devices for submarines and ships. During this time, he also perfected several important inventions related to the enhanced use of rubber, concrete, and ethanol.

By the 1920s, Edison was internationally revered. However, despite being personally acquainted with scores of very important people of his era, he cultivated only a few close friendships. Due to the continuing demands of his career, he still spent relatively long periods with his family, albeit in shockingly small amounts of time. You can also explore the detailed History of Electricity to see how key figures like Edison and Tesla reshaped modern life.

The Electrical Legacy of Thomas Edison

It wasn't until his health began to fail, in the late 1920s, that Edison finally began to slow down and, so to speak, "smell the flowers." Up until obtaining his last (1,093rd) patent at the age of 83, he worked mostly at home, where, though increasingly frail, he enjoyed greeting former associates and famous people, such as Charles Lindbergh, Marie Curie, Henry Ford, and President Herbert Hoover. He also enjoyed reading the mail of admirers and puttering around, when able, in his office and home laboratory.

Thomas Edison died at 9 P.M. On Oct. 18th, 1931, in New Jersey. He was 84 years of age. Shortly before passing away, he awoke from a coma. He quietly whispered to his very religious and faithful wife, Mina, who had been keeping a vigil all night by his side: "It is very beautiful over there..."

Recognizing that his death marked the end of an era in the progress of civilization, countless individuals, communities, and corporations throughout the world dimmed their lights and, or, briefly turned off their Thomas Edison electricity in his honor on the evening of the day he was laid to rest at his beautiful estate at Glenmont, New Jersey. Most realized that, even though he was far from being a flawless human being and may not have truly had the avuncular personality that was often ascribed to him by mythmakers, he was an essentially good man with a powerful mission. Driven by a superhuman desire to fulfill the promise of research and invent things to serve mankind, no one did more to help realize our Puritan founders' dream of creating a country that, at its best, would be viewed by the rest of the world as "a shining city upon a hill." Find out Who Invented Electricity and Who Discovered Electricity to understand better how scientific knowledge evolved before Edison’s practical systems were built.

Edison’s work in electricity went beyond invention—he built the foundation of our electric utility infrastructure. His innovations included direct current (DC) systems, incandescent lamps, electric meters, and early designs for generators. From Menlo Park to the creation of General Electric, his electrical inventions, including the phonograph, alkaline battery, and commercial lighting systems, ushered in an era of power generation and electric power distribution that continues to this day. For a broader look at how electricity evolved into the powerful force we use today, visit our Electricity History page.

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The history of electricity traces discoveries from ancient static charges to modern power grids. Key milestones include Franklin’s lightning experiments, Volta’s battery, and Edison’s light bulb, laying the foundation for today’s electrical energy, distribution systems, and innovation.

What is the History of Electricity?

The history of electricity reveals how scientific discoveries evolved into practical technologies that power the modern world.

✅ Tracks early observations of electric charge and static electricity

✅ Highlights discoveries by pioneers like Franklin, Volta, and Edison

✅ Shows how electric power systems shaped modern life

Our comprehensive electricity history guide breaks down major inventions and the rise of electrical infrastructure. Curious about the origins? Explore our detailed timeline of electricity discoveries, from ancient Greek observations to global electrification.

How It Transformed Human Civilization: From Curiosity to Power Grid

Long before it was understood, it was felt—a crackling jolt from a sweater, a lightning strike in the sky, the pull of a magnet. These mysterious forces inspired awe, fear, and speculation. Early humans saw them as magic, omens, or divine power.

Around 600 BC, Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus observed that rubbing amber (or elektron) with fur caused it to attract small objects. This was static electricity, though no one knew it yet. The word electricity would later come from that same Greek root.

It wasn’t until the early 1600s that electrical energy began its transformation from myth to science. English scientist William Gilbert, in his book De Magnete, coined the term electricus and distinguished magnetic forces from electrical attraction. He introduced experimentation and laid the groundwork for future inquiry.

For centuries, electromagnetism was nature’s secret—lightning in the sky, sparks on contact, strange forces pulling and pushing. It would take time, and many curious minds, to turn this invisible energy into a force that could change the world.

Curiosity Turns to Science

By the 18th century, electric current was more than a curiosity, it was becoming a science. Benjamin Franklin, fascinated by lightning, wondered if it was the same as static electricity. In 1752, his legendary kite experiment proved it was. A key attached to the string sparked during the storm, confirming that lightning was electrical in nature. Franklin’s bold curiosity led to practical inventions like the lightning rod and sparked wider interest in harnessing electric power.

Benjamin Franklin

Learn how Ben Franklin discovered electricity through his iconic kite experiment and helped define lightning as an electrical force. For a deeper dive into Franklin’s work, see our dedicated article on Ben Franklin and electricity, which outlines his groundbreaking theories.

Meanwhile, in Italy, a different kind of electrical mystery was unfolding. In 1786, Luigi Galvani discovered that a dead frog’s leg twitched when touched with a metal scalpel. He believed this was “animal electricity”, a life force stored in living tissue.

But Alessandro Volta disagreed. He argued the twitch was caused by two dissimilar metals and moisture, creating a chemical reaction that produced an electric current. To prove it, he invented the voltaic pile, the first true battery—a steady, flowing source of electrical energy that could be used in experiments.

Alessandro Volta

This rivalry—Galvani’s biological theory versus Volta’s chemical one—marked a turning point. For the first time, electrical energy could be created, stored, and controlled. Franklin had shown that electrical energy was a natural force; Volta showed it could become a practical power source. And with that, electric energy began its transformation from phenomenon to technology.  Compare how electricity was discovered with who invented electricity and its impact on shaping the modern world.

From Sparks to Power — The Invention of Continuous Current

For centuries, electric current appeared only in flashes—unpredictable and temporary. It sparked from rubbed amber, jumped between metal objects, or roared across the sky as lightning. Scientists had learned to generate and store static electricity, but no one could create a steady, usable flow. That changed in 1800, when Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile—a stack of zinc and copper discs separated by salt-soaked cloth. It was the world’s first battery, and it marked a seismic shift in the understanding and use of electric power.

Volta’s device didn’t just shock or spark—it produced a continuous current, something new and astonishing. With it, electrical energy became a resource rather than a curiosity. For the first time, electric energy could be controlled, repeated, and studied in depth. This breakthrough allowed scientists to move beyond single moments of discharge and into the study of electrical circuits, potential difference, and chemical reactions that produced steady electron flow.

Electrical energy had changed from a bolt in the sky to a stream you could tap into. This new flow, like a river of electrons, could power devices, light filaments, and eventually drive motors. Volta’s battery became the quiet heartbeat of a new era of invention. Without it, there could be no generators, no industrial electrical power, and no modern power systems.

Lighting the World — Edison, Tesla, and the Grid

The invention of continuous current sparked a wave of innovation, but it was light that brought electrical power into the lives of ordinary people. In the late 1870s, Thomas Edison designed a practical incandescent bulb, one that could burn for hours and be mass-produced. But lighting a bulb wasn’t enough—he needed a way to deliver power to homes and businesses. That led to the creation of the first central power station, and with it, the beginning of the electrical grid. 

Thomas Edison

Read about how Thomas Edison revolutionized electricity by building the first power distribution system in New York City.

Edison’s system ran on direct current (DC), which could only transmit power a short distance. Enter Nikola Tesla, a brilliant inventor who envisioned a better solution: alternating current (AC). Backed by industrialist George Westinghouse, Tesla’s AC system could send electrical energy miles away with minimal loss. The resulting clash between the two camps became known as the War of Currents—a high-stakes drama of innovation, rivalry, and public persuasion.

In the end, Tesla’s AC system prevailed, and the modern power grid was born. But more than a technical achievement, this was a cultural shift. Darkness no longer ruled the night. Cities glowed. Streets, homes, and factories became connected by invisible power. Electric current had moved from labs and elite workshops into the daily rhythm of life. It changed how we worked, lived, and imagined the future.

Nikola Tesla

From Wires to Wireless — The Communication Revolution

Electrical generation did more than light up cities—it gave humans a way to communicate across time and space. The 19th century saw the invention of the telegraph, powered by simple electric circuits and Morse code. For the first time in history, messages could travel faster than a horse or a ship. The telephone soon followed, allowing real-time voice communication through electric signals carried over wires.

But electrical energy wasn’t the only thing transforming communication. With the discoveries of James Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz, scientists realized that electrical currents could produce electromagnetic waves—waves that could travel through air without wires. Guglielmo Marconi turned this insight into the world’s first wireless telegraph. Radio was born. Later, electric circuits powered amplifiers, transmitters, and receivers, laying the groundwork for broadcasting, television, and digital electronics.

From sparks to speech, and from wires to wireless, alternating current became the nervous system of the modern world. Nearly every modern communication device—from smartphones to satellites- traces its lineage to these electric breakthroughs. The world became smaller, faster, and more connected, all because humans learned to speak through electrons.

The Invisible Infrastructure

Today, electric power is everywhere, and yet we rarely see it. It hums behind the walls, powers our screens, drives our vehicles, and breathes life into the machines that run modern life. From smartphones to data centers, electric vehicles to traffic lights, power flows silently beneath society’s surface. Without it, cities would darken, hospitals would halt, and the digital world would vanish.

We rely on vast electrical infrastructure—power plants, substations, transformers, and transmission lines—to keep this energy flowing. Most of us never see these systems unless they fail. But behind every light switch and every blinking cursor is a complex dance of generation, transmission, and distribution, orchestrated with precision and scale.

Electrical energy is no longer just a discovery. It is our lifeblood—a silent force that powers not just technology, but modern civilization itself. As essential as water and air, electrical energy underpins every aspect of our lives. It connects, sustains, and defines us. It is the bloodstream of civilization—invisible, indispensable, and always flowing.

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Ben Franklin Discover Electricity explores the kite experiment, lightning, Leyden jar capacitors, static charge, conductors, grounding, and electrostatics, linking early voltage insights to modern electrical engineering and circuit safety principles.

What Does Ben Franklin Discover Electricity Mean?

Franklin's kite test tied lightning to electrostatics, showing charge, grounding, and conductor behavior for engineers.

✅ Modeled lightning as electrical discharge using a grounded conductor.

✅ Captured charge with a Leyden jar capacitor to measure potential.

✅ Inspired grounding, insulation, and surge protection design.

It is the common belief that Ben Franklin "discovered" electricity. Modern historians clarify in this discussion of who discovered electricity that discovery was a gradual process involving many thinkers.

In fact, electricity did not begin when Benjamin Franklin flew his kite during a thunderstorm or when light bulbs were installed in houses all around the world. For broader context, see a concise history of electricity that traces developments long before Franklin's era.

"His observations," says Dr. Stuber, "he communicated, in a series of letters, to his friend Collinson, the first of which is dated March 28, 1747. In these he shows the power of points in drawing and throwing off the electrical matter which had hitherto escaped the notice of electricians. He also made the grand discovery of a plus and minus, or of a positive and negative, state of electricity. We give him the honor of this without hesitation; although the English have claimed it for their countryman, Dr. Watson. Watson's paper is dated January 21, 1748; Franklin's July 11, 1747, several months prior. Shortly after Franklin, from his principles of the plus and minus state, explained in a satisfactory manner the phenomena of the Leyden vial, first observed by Mr. Cuneus, or by Professor Muschenbroeck, of Leyden, which had much perplexed philosophers. He showed clearly that when charged the bottle contained no more electricity than before, but that as much was taken from one side as was thrown on the other; and that to discharge it nothing was necessary but to produce a communication between the two sides, by which the equilibrium might be restored, and that then no sign of electricity would remain. He afterward demonstrated by experiments that the electricity did not reside in the coating, as had been supposed, but in the pores of the glass itself. After a vial was charged he removed the coating, and found that upon applying a new coating the shock might still be received. In the year 1749 he first suggested his idea of explaining the phenomena of thunder-gusts and of the aurora borealis upon electrical principles. He points out many particulars in which lightning and electricity agree, and he adduces many facts, and reasonings from facts, in support of his positions.

These ideas also foreshadow links between charge, fields, and induction outlined in foundational electricity and magnetism resources that situate Franklin's work within later theory.

"In the same year he received the astonishingly bold and grand idea of ascertaining the truth of his doctrine by actually drawing down the lightning, by means of sharp-pointed iron rods raised into the region of the clouds. Even in this uncertain state his passion to be useful to mankind displayed itself in a powerful manner. Admitting the identity of electricity and lightning, and knowing the power of points in repelling bodies charged with electricity, and in conducting their fires silently and imperceptibly, he suggested the idea of securing houses, ships, etc., from being damaged by lightning, by erecting pointed rods that should rise some feet above the most elevated part, and descend some feet into the ground or water. The effect of these he concluded would be either to prevent a stroke by repelling the cloud beyond the striking distance, or by drawing off the electrical fire which it contained; or, if they could not effect this, they would at least conduct the electric matter to the earth without any injury to the building.

Practical consequences of these insights are summarized in an overview of Franklin's contributions to electricity that explains the lightning rod's impact on public safety.

"It was not till the summer of 1752 that he was enabled to complete his grand and unparalleled discovery by experiment. The plan which he had originally proposed was to erect, on some high tower or other elevated place, a sentry-box, from which should rise a pointed iron rod, insulated by being fixed in a cake of resin. Electrified clouds passing over this would, he conceived, impart to it a portion of their electricity, which would be rendered evident to the senses by sparks being emitted when a key, the knuckle, or other conductor was presented to it. Philadelphia at this time afforded no opportunity of trying an experiment of this kind. While Franklin was waiting for the erection of a spire, it occurred to him that he might have more ready access to the region of clouds by means of a common kite. He prepared one by fastening two cross sticks to a silken handkerchief, which would not suffer so much from the rain as paper. To the upright stick was affixed an iron point. The string was, as usual, of hemp, except the lower end, which was silk. Where the hempen string terminated, a key was fastened. With this apparatus, on the appearance of a thunder-gust approaching he went out into the commons, accompanied by his son, to whom alone he communicated his intentions, well knowing the ridicule which, too generally for the interest of science, awaits unsuccessful experiments in philosophy. He placed himself under a shed, to avoid the rain; his kite was raised, a thunder-cloud passed over it, no sign of electricity appeared. He almost despaired of success, when suddenly he observed the loose fibres of his string to move toward an erect position. He now presented his knuckle to the key and received a strong spark. How exquisite must his sensations have been at this moment! On this experiment depended the fate of his theory. If he succeeded, his name would rank high among those who had improved science; if he failed, he must inevitably be subjected to the derision of mankind, or, what is worse, their pity, as a well-meaning man, but a weak, silly projector. The anxiety with which he looked for the result of his experiment may be easily conceived. Doubts and despair had begun to prevail, when the fact was ascertained, in so clear a manner that even the most incredulous could no longer withhold their assent. Repeated sparks were drawn from the key, a vial was charged, a shock given, and all the experiments made which are usually performed with electricity.

This experiment is often positioned on timelines such as a chronology of electricity's history that maps how one breakthrough enabled the next.

"About a month before this period some ingenious Frenchman had completed the discovery in the manner originally proposed by Dr. Franklin. The letters which he sent to Mr. Collinson, it is said, were refused a place in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London. However this may be, Collinson published them in a separate volume, under the title of New Experiments and Observations on Electricity, made at Philadelphia, in America. They were read with avidity, and soon translated into different languages. A very incorrect French translation fell into the hands of the celebrated Buffon, who, notwithstanding the disadvantages under which the work labored, was much pleased with it, and repeated the experiments with success. He prevailed on his friend, M. Dalibard, to give his countrymen a more correct translation of the works of the American electrician. This contributed much toward spreading a knowledge of Franklin's principles in France. The King, Louis XV, hearing of these experiments, expressed a wish to be a spectator of them. A course of experiments was given at the seat of the Duc d'Ayen, at St. Germain, by M. de Lor. The applause which the King bestowed upon Franklin excited in Buffon, Dalibard, and De Lor an earnest desire of ascertaining the truth of his theory of thunder-gusts. Buffon erected his apparatus on the tower of Montbar, M. Dalibard at Marly-la-Ville, and De Lor at his house in the Estrapade at Paris, some of the highest ground in that capital. Dalibard's machine first showed signs of electricity. On May 16, 1752, a thunder-cloud passed over it, in the absence of M. Dalibard, and a number of sparks were drawn from it by Coiffier, joiner, with whom Dalibard had left directions how to proceed and by M. Paulet, the prior of Marly-la-Ville.

"An account of this experiment was given to the Royal Academy of Sciences, by M. Dalibard, in a memoir dated May 13, 1752. On May 18th, M. de Lor proved equally as successful with the apparatus erected at his own house. These philosophers soon excited those of other parts of Europe to repeat the experiment; among whom none signalized themselves more than Father Beccaria, of Turin, to whose observations science is much indebted. Even the cold regions of Russia were penetrated by the ardor of discovery. Professor Richmann bade fair to add much to the stock of knowledge on this subject, when an unfortunate flash from his conductor put a period to his existence.

Such international replication also illuminates the distinction between discovery and invention discussed in analyses of who invented electricity that parse credit across different achievements.

"By these experiments Franklin's theory was established in the most convincing manner.

Later innovators including Edison would translate this scientific understanding into widespread applications described in accounts of Thomas Edison's work with electricity that trace the path from lab to industry.

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